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** Twentieth-Century Pioneers in Classroom Discipline  ** Chapter 4 describes contributions made between 1951 and 1998 by six influential pioneers in   classroom discipline. While their approaches rarely are used as complete behavior management systems today, elements from their programs are strongly evident in current discipline programs. These contributions lead the way toward modern discipline approaches.
 * Chapter 4 **
 * FRITZ REDL and WILLIAM WATTENBERG **

//__ Discipline Through Influencing Group Behavior __//
Fritz Redl and William Wattenberg (1951) were specialists in human behavior and educational psychology who specifically researched group behavior and dynamics. They presented the first theory-based approach to classroom discipline. Specifically, their work was designed to help teachers understand and deal humanely with group misbehavior and the effects it had on   individual students. • People in groups behave differently than they do as individuals. This perception helped teachers understand how individual behavior is affected by the group. • // Group dynamics //, defined as forces generated by and within groups, produce the group currents that strongly affect behavior. If teachers are to deal effectively with group behavior, they must understand group dynamics, how they develop, and how they affect students in the classroom. • Students’ behavior is affected by classroom conditions. Students adopt identifiable // roles // in   the classroom: leaders, followers, clowns (the show-offs), instigators (who provoke    misbehavior), and scapegoats (those on whom blame is placed even when not deserved). • Teacher behavior also is affected by classroom conditions. Students have in mind certain // roles // they expect teachers to fill, such as role models, sources of knowledge, referees, judges, and surrogate parents. • Teachers should remain mindful of student attitudes toward school and the class, show a clear desire to be helpful, remain as objective as possible, show tolerance, and maintain a sense of   humor. • Teachers should use // influence techniques, // rather than punishment to control student behavior. Positive influence techniques include // supporting student self-control //, offering // situational // // assistance, // and // appraising reality //**, ** where teachers help students become aware of underlying causes of proper and improper behavior. • Teachers should involve students in setting class standards and deciding how transgressions should be handled. • Punishment, if it has to be used at all, should never be physically hurtful. Rather, it should be   only pre-planned consequences that are unpleasant to the student, such as sitting alone, making up unfinished work, or not being allowed to participate in certain class activities.
 * Main Ideas **

**__ Redl and Wattenberg’s (1951) Contributions to Modern Classroom Discipline __**
������ Described how groups behave differently from individuals, thus helping teachers to   understand classroom behaviors that are otherwise perplexing. ������ Provided the first well-organized, systematic, humane, approach to improving student behavior in the classroom. ������ Emphasized understanding the causes of student misbehavior, believing that by attending to   causes teachers could eliminate most misbehavior. ������ Established the value of involving students in making decisions about discipline. ������ Pointed out the detrimental effects of punishment and showed why it should not be used in   class discipline.

**__ Strengths of Redl and Wattenberg’s Work Challenges of Their Work __**
• Described how individuals behave differently from groups. • Provided a well organized, systematic approach to improving student behavior. • Emphasized understanding the causes of student misbehavior. • Valued involving students in making decisions about discipline. • Pointed out detrimental effects of punishment and showed why it should not be used in class discipline. • Teachers found it difficult to grasp the concept and implications of group dynamics. • Asked teachers to abandon views on physical punishment. • Teachers did not understand how to deal with roles expected of students and themselves. • Teachers were unable to implement procedures quickly and effectively in the classroom context. • Teachers felt they had insufficient expertise to properly carry out the procedures.
 * B. F. SKINNER **

//__ Discipline Through Shaping Desired Behavior __//
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), a behavioral psychologist, investigated how our voluntary actions are influenced by what happens to us immediately after we perform a given act. While he published his findings and beliefs about human behavior, he never concerned himself directly with classroom discipline. In the early 1960s, followers devised and popularized // behavior // // modification //, the principles of which have been widely used in teaching, child rearing, and human relations. • Much, if not most, of our voluntary behavior is shaped by reinforcement we receive immediately after we perform an act. // Reinforcement //, which Skinner called the reinforcing stimulus, can be thought of as a // reward //. • If // reinforcing stimuli // are to have an effect on behavior, they must be received soon after the behavior occurs. Common in today’s classrooms: knowledge of results, peer approval, awards and free time, and smiles, nods, and praise from the teacher. • // Behavior modification // refers to the overall procedure of // shaping behavior // intentionally through systematic reinforcement. Skinner did not invent or use the term behavior modification. • // Constant reinforcement //, given every time a student behaves as desired, helps new learning become established. • // Intermittent reinforcement //, given occasionally, is sufficient to maintain desired behavior once it has become established. • Behaviors that are not reinforced eventually disappear—become // extinguished. //  • // Successive approximation // refers to a behavior-shaping progression in which behavior comes closer and closer to a preset goal. This process is helpful in building skills incrementally. • // Punishment // has unpredictable effects and should not used in behavior shaping. ������ Skinner did not concern himself with classroom discipline per se, but his discoveries led directly to behavior modification, especially popular in the primary grades in the 1960s, and still used by some to speed and shape academic and social learning. ������ Today, behavior modification is not used much for encouraging and strengthening learning. • Acknowledged the effects of reinforcement on behavior and learning. • Drew attention to the use and timing of reinforcement (constant and intermittent) for shaping behavior. • Recognized successive approximations as beneficial to building skills incrementally. • Principles of behavior modification and principles of reinforcement still are used by   some to speed and shape academic and social learning, particularly in primary grades. • Teachers’ concern that they were bribing students to behave properly. • Asked teachers to reconsider their views on punishment. • Unsuitable as a total discipline package beyond primary grades. • Ignoring misbehavior was not enough to get students to behave properly. • Misbehavior often brought enough social rewards from peers to sustain it. • Ineffective in teaching students what // not // to do.
 * Main Ideas **
 * Skinner’s Contributions to Classroom Discipline **
 * Strengths of Skinner’s Work Challenges of Skinner’s Work **
 * JACOB KOUNIN **

//__ Discipline Through Lesson Management __//
Jacob Kounin, an educational psychologist, was the first to present a detailed analysis of the effects of classroom management and lesson management on student behavior. Kounin observed teachers in action, and published his observations and ideas in 1971. • Teachers need to know what is going on in all parts of the classroom at all times and deal with incipient problems before they turn into misbehavior. Kounin called this trait // withitness. //  • Teachers good in behavior management are able to attend to two or more classroom events simultaneously. Kounin called this skill // overlapping. //  • Effective teachers have systems for gaining student attention and clarifying expectations. Kounin called this tactic // group alerting //, where teachers gain students’ full attention before giving directions or making explanations. • Effective teachers keep students attentive and actively involved. // Student accountability // is   maintained by regularly calling on students to respond, demonstrate, or explain. • Good lesson momentum helps keep students on track. // Momentum // refers to a condition where teachers start lessons quickly, keep lessons moving ahead, make efficient transitions between activities, and bring lessons to a satisfactory close. • // Smoothness // in lesson presentation refers to the steady progression of lessons, without abrupt changes. • Effective teachers keep students from getting bored or otherwise ‘fed up’ with lessons. They guard against over-exposure to avoid // satiation //, Kounin’s term for students’ getting all they can tolerate of a topic. Students usually show satiation by disengagement, boredom, and misbehavior. • Effective teachers make instructional activities enjoyable and challenging. ������ Identified specific teaching strategies that help students remain engaged in lessons. ������ Drew attention to the close connection between teaching and control of behavior. ������ Emphasized how teachers could manage students, lessons, and classrooms so as to reduce misbehavior. • Described what teachers should understand about operating their classrooms: a   nonsatiating learning program, varied activities, momentum, overlapping, withitness. • Drew attention to the close connection between teaching and discipline. • Teacher strategies for managing students, lessons, and classrooms. • Expected to find a relationship between what teachers did when students misbehaved and the subsequent misbehavior of students. No such finding emerged from his research. • Not satisfactory as a total system of discipline. • No help in what teachers should do when misbehavior disrupts lessons.
 * Main Ideas **
 * Kounin’s Contributions to Classroom Discipline **
 * Strengths of Kounin’s Work Challenges of Kounin’s Work **
 * HAIM GINOTT **

//__ Discipline Through Congruent Communication __//
Haim Ginott, professor of psychology and psychiatry, was a classroom teacher early in his career. He was the first to strongly champion the crucial role of communication skills in building sound classroom discipline. Ginott’s book, // Teacher and Child // (1971), concerns how teachers talk to   and with their students. His suggestions were helpful for maintaining good relationships and providing encouragement. • Learning always takes place in the present tense, without pre-judgment or grudges. • Learning always is a personal matter to students. Each learner is an individual and must be   treated as such. • Communication is the key to working effectively with students. Teachers always should use // congruent communication // that is harmonious with students’ feelings about situations and themselves. • The cardinal principle of congruent communication is that it addresses // situations //, not students’ character or personality. • // Teachers at their best //, using congruent communication, do not preach or moralize, nor impose guilt or demand promises. Instead, they // confer dignity // on their students by treating them as social equals capable of making good decisions. • // Teachers at their worst // label students, belittle them, and denigrate their character. Usually this is done inadvertently. • Effective teachers // invite cooperation // from their students by describing the situation and indicating what needs to be done. They do not dictate to students or boss them around, which provokes resistance. • Effective teachers have a // hidden asset // upon which they always should call. They ask themselves, “How can I be most helpful to my students right now?” • Teachers should feel free to express their anger and other feelings, but when doing so should use // I-messages // rather than // you-messages. // (“I am very upset,” rather than “You are being   very rude.”) • It is wise to use // laconic language // (short, concise, and brief) when responding to or   redirecting student misbehavior. • // Evaluative praise //, which evaluates student character, is worse than none at all and should never be used. (“Good boy for raising your hand.”) • When responding to effort or improvement, teachers should use // appreciative praise //, which shows appreciation for what the student has done. (“I can almost smell those pine trees in   your drawing.”) • Always respect students’ privacy. • When correcting students, teachers should teach students how to behave properly, instead of   reprimanding them. • When discussing behavior, teachers should avoid // why questions // which make students feel guilty and defensive. • Sarcasm almost always is dangerous and should not be used when discussing situations with students. • Punishment should not be used in the classroom. It only produces hostility, rancor, and vengefulness, while never making students really want to improve. • Teachers should strive continually for // self-discipline // in their work with students. • Classroom discipline is attained gradually, as a series of little victories in which teachers, through self-discipline and helpfulness, promote humaneness and self-control within students. ������ Provided the first coherent strategies for building classroom discipline through communication. ������ Insisted that the only true discipline is self-discipline. ������ Clarified the role of communication (how teachers talk to and with students) in discipline, and showed the value of // congruent communication // —teacher communication that is   harmonious with student feelings and self-perception. ������ Further clarified his contentions by describing teachers at their best and teachers at their worst. ������ Showed how genuine discipline is gained through small steps that result in genuine changes in student attitude. • Teacher communication to maintain positive relationships with students: congruent communication, I-messages, and appreciative praise. • “How can I be most helpful to my students right now? • Not a total system of discipline. • Asked teachers to reconsider their views on communication and punishment. • No clear standards for expectations of proper behavior. • No clear descriptions of how to stop offensive or disruptive behavior.
 * Main Ideas **
 * Ginott’s Contributions to Classroom Discipline **
 * Strengths of Ginott’s Work Challenges of Ginott’s Work **
 * RUDOLF DREIKURS **

//__ Discipline Through Democratic Teaching __//
Contemporary to Kounin and Ginott’s work was the work of Rudolf Dreikurs, that emphasized seeking out and dealing with underlying causes of misbehavior. A psychiatrist, Dreikurs first worked in family and child counseling before turning his attention to misbehavior and discipline in school classrooms. • Discipline at its best is seen in student // self-control, // based on // social interest //. Self-controlled students are able to show initiative, make reasonable decisions, and assume responsibility in   ways that benefit themselves and others. • Good discipline occurs best in // democratic classrooms //, where teacher and students work together to make decisions about how the class will function. • Good discipline cannot occur in autocratic or permissive classrooms. In // autocratic // // classrooms, // teachers make all the decisions and impose them on students, leaving no   opportunity for student initiative or responsibility. In // permissive classrooms, // teachers fail to   require that students comply with rules, conduct themselves humanely, or experience consequences for their misbehavior. • Almost all students have a primary compelling desire to feel they are valued members of the class, that they belong. This sense of belonging is the // genuine goal // of most school behavior. Students sense // belonging // when the teacher and others give them attention and respect, involve them in activities, and do not mistreat them. • Students, unable to gain a sense of belonging in the class, often turn to mistaken goals: ������ // When seeking attention, // students talk out, show off, interrupt others, and demand teacher attention. ������ // When seeking power //, students drag their heels, make comments under their breath, and sometimes try to show that the teacher can't make them do anything. ������ // When seeking revenge //, students attempt to get back at the teacher and others by   lying, subverting class activities, or maliciously disrupting the class. ������ // When seeking to display inadequacy //, students withdraw from class activities and make no effort to learn. • Teachers should learn how to identify mistaken goals and deal with them. They should do   this in a friendly, non-threatening manner. • Rules for governing class behavior should be formulated jointly by teacher and students. • // Logical consequences // for compliance or violation should be associated with those rules. • // Punishment // should never be used in the classroom. It is just a way for teachers to get back at   students and show who is boss. ������ Identified true discipline as synonymous with self-discipline, and based his discipline scheme on the premise of social interest (students’ concern for their personal well being, as well as   for the group). ������ Clarified how democratic teachers and classrooms promote sound discipline. ������ Pinpointed a prime goal (that of belonging) as an underlying motivator of student behavior. ������ Identified and offered techniques for giving positive redirection to students’ // mistaken goals // of attention, power, revenge, and inadequacy. ������ Urged teachers and students to jointly formulate rules and logical consequences for compliance or violation. ������ Offered specific suggestions concerning how teachers should interact with students. • Usable concepts and strategies for teachers: social interest, democratic teaching, goal of   belonging, mistaken goals, joint rules and consequences, and encouragement. • Specific suggestions of how teachers should interact with students. • Had teachers use encouragement instead of praise or punishment. • Teachers found his system too daunting to implement easily. • Teachers had trouble seeing the interconnections among democracy, prime motive, mistaken goals, social interest, and logical consequences. • The system did not tell teachers what to do to put an immediate stop to student disruption, aggression, and defiance.
 * Main Ideas **
 * Dreikurs’s Contributions to Classroom Discipline **
 * Strengths of Dreikurs’s Work Challenges of Dreikurs’s Work **
 * LEE and MARLENE CANTER **

//__ Discipline Through Assertive Control __//
Lee Canter, whose work began with // Assertive Discipline: A Take-Charge Approach for Today’s // // Educator // (1976), founded Lee Canter & Associates in 1976, and provided materials and training in Assertive Discipline to educators and parents. In 1998 Canter & Associates merged with Sylvan Learning Systems. In 2003 when the decision was made to focus exclusively on postsecondary education, the company changed its name to Laureate Education, Incorporated, and no longer produced materials or provided workshops on Assertive Discipline. The Assertive Discipline approach helped teachers take charge in the classroom by interacting with students in a calm, insistent, and consistent manner. The Canters popularized the concept of   rights in the classroom—the rights of students to learn in a calm, orderly classroom, and the rights of teachers to teach without interruptions. They also expected administrators and students’ caregivers to support the system they advocated. • Students have the right to learn in a safe, calm environment, with full support. • Teachers have the right to teach in a professional manner, without disruption, and to expect administrators and students’ caregivers to support the system they advocate. • Students choose to behave as they do. • A classroom environment that supports students and teachers has clear rules of behavior, positive consequences for compliance such as recognition and praise, and a carefully structured hierarchy of negative consequences that are so distasteful that students will choose to comply with class rules. • Three contrasting types of teachers exist: ������ // Hostile teachers // seem to view students as adversaries. They attempt to maintain order by laying down the law, accepting no nonsense, and using commands, stern facial expressions, and unnecessarily strong admonishments. These messages suggest a dislike for students, and students tend to feel they are being treated unjustly. ������ // Nonassertive teachers // take an overly passive approach to students. They seem wishy-washy, unable to state clear and consistent expectations. Students learn not to   take these teachers seriously. ������ // Assertive teachers // (the prototype in Assertive Discipline) clearly, confidently, and consistently express expectations, attempt to build trust, and teach students how to   behave so learning can progress. Assertive teachers create a classroom that allows both teacher and students to meet their needs. • A written discipline plan clarifies rules, positive recognition, and corrective actions. ������ // Rules // state exactly how students are to behave. ������ // Positive recognition // refers to giving sincere personal attention to students who behave in keeping with class expectations. It should be used frequently to increase self-esteem, encourage good behavior, and build a positive classroom climate. Common ways include encouragement, expressing appreciation, and positive notes and phone calls to caregivers. ������ // Corrective actions // are applied when students interfere with other students’ right to   learn. They must be something students dislike, but never are physically or   psychologically harmful. The Canters stress that it is not severity but rather consistency in application that makes corrective actions effective. • In order to handle misbehavior calmly and quickly, a discipline hierarchy lists corrective actions and the order in which they will be imposed within the day. • For the discipline plan to work effectively, teachers must model and directly teach the plan and proper behavior to students, not simply set limits and apply consequences. ������ Popularized the concept of student and teacher rights in the classroom. ������ Described a classroom control strategy that places teachers humanely in charge of the classroom, and continually modified the approach to ensure that it remained effective as   social realities change. ������ Described hostile, nonassertive, and assertive teachers. ������ Offered a proactive approach to deal with problems of behavior that allows teachers to   invoke positive recognitions and corrective actions calmly and fairly. • Classrooms where students and teachers have rights. • Proactive approach that uses rules, positive recognition and support, and corrective actions to deal with problems of behavior calmly and fairly. • Can stop misbehavior quickly. • Supported clear consequences and student’s choice whether to receive the consequence. • Continual modifications to align the approach with social realities. • In the past it was seen as unnecessarily harsh, too mechanical, too demeaning, and too focused on suppressing unwanted behavior rather than on helping students learn to control their own behavior. • Originally, teachers were asked to be strong leaders in the classroom.
 * MAIN IDEAS **
 * Canters’s Contributions to Classroom Discipline **
 * Strengths of Canters’s Work Challenges of Canters’s Work **